A typical polymer electrolyte membrane (“PEM”) fuel cell has a polymer membrane that serves as an electrolyte, supporting the conduction of protons according to its hydration level. The polymer membrane has two surfaces (or two sides). One surface is in contact with an anode electrode catalyst layer, while the other surface is in contact with a cathode electrode catalyst layer. The anode catalyst effectuates the dissociation of hydrogen into its constituent protons and electrons—the protons migrate through the membrane from its anode side to its cathode side, where they recombine with activated oxygen species to form water in the presence of the cathode catalyst.